Open Veterinary Journal, (2024), Vol. 14(11): 2722-2730

Review Article

10.5455/OVJ.2024.v14.i11.1

Bovine trichomoniasis: A hidden threat to reproductive efficiency

Herry Agoes Hermadi¹*, Aswin Rafif Khairullah², Yenny Damayanti³, Erma Safitri¹, Wiwiek Tyasningsih⁴, Sunaryo Hadi Warsito⁵, Kartika Afrida Fauzia^6,7, Bantari Wisynu Kusuma Wardhani⁸, Fitrine Ekawasti², Syahputra Wibowo⁹, Ima Fauziah², Ikechukwu Benjamin Moses¹⁰, Dea Anita Ariani Kurniasih¹¹, Muhammad Khaliim Jati Kusala² and Julaeha Julaeha⁶

¹Division of Veterinary Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia

²Research Center for Veterinary Science, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Bogor, Indonesia

³Division of Veterinary Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia

⁴Division of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia

⁵Division of Animal Husbandry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia

⁶Research Center for Preclinical and Clinical Medicine, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Bogor, Indonesia

⁷Department of Environmental and Preventive Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Oita University, Yufu, Japan

⁸Research Center for Pharmaceutical Ingredients and Traditional Medicine, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Bogor, Indonesia

⁹Eijkman Research Center for Molecular Biology, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Bogor, Indonesia

¹⁰Department of Applied Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Nigeria

¹¹Research Center for Public Health and Nutrition, National Research and Innovation Agency (BRIN), Bogor, Indonesia

*Corresponding Author: Herry Agoes Hermadi. Division of Veterinary Reproduction, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia. Email: herrypro59 [at] yahoo.com

Submitted: 13/09/2024 Accepted: 11/10/2024 Published: 30/11/2024

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Abstract

Bovine trichomoniasis is a reproductive illness that affects cattle causing pyometra, early to mid-pregnancy miscarriages, and lower birth rates. Tritrichomonas foetus is a flagellated protozoan which first discovered in France in 1888 and composts three phases during its lifecycle including trophozoite, cyst, and pseudocyst. In addition, several factors contributed to the prevalence of trichomoniasis and fall into three categories are management, cow, and bull-related factors. The fundamental causes of bovine trichomoniasis-related embryonic or fetal death have not been precisely determined. Immunity to T. foetus has been subjected to very little contemporary research, but a thorough assessment of earlier work has been conducted. Clinical symptoms in cattle ranged from moderate endometritis or vaginitis to acute inflammation of the entire reproductive system. In cows, pregnancy-related infections result in metritis, pyometra, early embryonic demise, and abortion; whereas in bulls, it is suspected that bovine trichomoniasis should have their preputial cavity sampled and then sent to a laboratory for positive organism identification. To date, sexual contact is the known method of transmission of T. foetus. There have not been any significant attempts to create a treatment plan for cows because the infection is self-limitation. The distinct epidemiological features of bovine trichomoniasis determine the best prevention and control measures.

Keywords: Tritrichomonas foetus, Bovine reproductive infections, Abortion, Illness, Single-celled flagellated parasites.

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Introduction

In systems raising cattle, the primary reason for declining production is reproductive disorders. Bovine trichomoniasis is one of the most important reproductive infections that affect cattle causing pyometra, early to mid-pregnancy miscarriages, and lower birth rates (Martin et al., 2021). Tritrichomonas foetus is a flagellated protozoan, which was first discovered in France in 1888 and linked to infertility in cows (Dąbrowska et al., 2019). The disease was initially identified in the United States in dairy cattle from Pennsylvania in 1932, and in beef cattle from the western US in 1958 (Yao, 2021). Bovine trichomoniasis can only be spread, as far as is known, by natural mating or sexual contact (Jin et al., 2014).

Tritrichomonas foetus trophozoites can be transmitted during sexual activity, to cause metritis and premature embryonic demise in cows (Ortega-Mora et al., 2022). Although no typical symptoms can be seen in infected bulls, infected cows could appear with minor symptoms such as endometritis or vaginitis, or it can be more severe to cause inflammation in the reproductive tract (Gharban, 2023). Infertility, a lower calving ratio, and pyometra in pregnant cows are possible additional concerns (González-Carmona et al., 2012). The main way that T. foetus spreads from infected to healthy animals is through sexual contact, most frequently through natural mating (Dąbrowska et al., 2019).

Due to detrimental effects on herd reproductive performance, trichomoniasis can reduce the pregnant heifers and then calves as a result Bovine trichomoniasis has the biggest influence on cattle operations (Oyhenart, 2019). The costs of feed and other maintenance for infertile cattle, replacement costs for bulls and heifers infected with T. foetus, testing expenses for T. foetus control, and lower weaning weights as a result of late calves are additional trichomoniasis-related factors that have a detrimental effect on the profitability of beef cattle operations (Yao, 2021).

The disease still causes significant financial loss in some areas because of abortions, infertility, and the culling of carrier bulls (Rodning et al., 2008). The disease is present extensively in cultivated beef cattle, but it has been proven to be less common in intensively farmed dairy and beef cattle due to using hygienic artificial insemination (Mendoza-Ibarra et al., 2012). Therefore, the disease is uncommon in southern Australia and New Zealand but is still present in northern Australia in cattle. However, natural breeding practices still prevail in the American West, which provides the majority of cattle reared in North America, making incidences of bovine trichomoniasis rather common (Martin et al., 2021).

Typically, evidence of herd exposure is detected late in the breeding season at pregnancy diagnosis. However, a vigilant farmer may uncover a heifer with post-breeding pyometra at an early pregnancy diagnostic or notice an abnormally late return of estrus in a heifer after the bull is out (Funnel, 2022). Investigation is necessary if there is a significant percentage of sterile cows during the calving season. This suggests that bovine trichomoniasis is present. It is obvious that the increasing prevalence of bovine trichomoniasis has a negative effect on cattle reproduction. The purpose of this review is to explain the etiology, life cycle, history, epidemiology, pathogenesis, immune response, pathology, clinical symptoms, diagnosis, transmission, economic impact, treatment, and control of bovine trichomoniasis.

Etiology

Tritrichomonas means “three-haired unicellular protozoa”, which accurately describes some of the morphological characteristics of this organism (Coceres et al., 2021). The protozoan Tritrichomonas foetus has a pyriform shape and two ends: a pointed posterior end and a rounded anterior end. Their dimensions can range from 5 to 10 μm in width and 10–25 μm in length. T. foetus contains four flagella and one nucleus. There are four flagella in total; three are at the front end and the fourth forms an extension of the undulating membrane that extends posteriorly (Pereira-Neves and Benchimol, 2009). The organism’s distinctive vibrating motion is caused by the 3–5 waves of its wavy membrane, which is found on one side of the body. The term “trophozoite” refers to this motile life stage. Trophozoites use linear binary fission for asexual reproduction (Iriarte et al., 2023).

The common hosts of T. foetus are cattle (Bos indicus and B. taurus) (Martínez et al., 2023). The quantity of flagella following staining or phase contrast microscopy inspection is a crucial morphological characteristic that can aid in differentiating T. foetus from other flagellated cow parasites. However, depending on their anatomy, non-T. Trichomonad foetus is always challenging to differentiate from T. foetus (Parker et al., 2003). Trichomonads have the size of leukocytes and are very motile. Tritrichomonas foetus possesses three anterior flagella and one recurrent flagellum, compared to four flagella on the anterior side of T. vaginalis (Coceres et al., 2021).

Life cycle

Distinct species of trichomonads have been reported to have trophozoite, cyst, and pseudocyst phases alike. The term “cyst” refers to the invasion of an external organelle that transforms the cell’s plasma membrane into a solid, spherical, stationary life stage while maintaining its outward integrity as a barrier. The word “pseudo” refers to the stage of the pseudocyst in which exterior organelles invaginate but the plasma membrane’s composition remains unchanged (Beri et al., 2020). As a reaction to a stressful environment, the invagination form is frequently thought of as a degenerative life form. On the other hand, when favorable conditions are restored, T. foetus forms pseudocysts and reverts to trophozoites (Iriarte et al., 2023). During this pseudocyst stage, the T. foetus can also reproduce by double binary fission, budding, or “shizongoni-like” fission (Pereira-Neves and Benchimol, 2009). According to a recent investigation, in the preputial secretions of naturally infected bulls, this pseudocyst form may actually be more prevalent than the trophozoite stage (Pereira-Neves et al., 2009). Although the precise function of the pseudocyst form of T. foetus remains unknown at this point, many people think that it might be a regular component of the life cycle due to the stage’s fertility.

History

The discovery of the genital protozoan T. foetus is believed to have occurred in France in 1888. Regretfully, the identification of brucellosis in 1897 coincided with the finding of this organism (Dąbrowska et al., 2019). Before the 1920s, when Germany resumed study, T. foetus received little attention. Emerson found the first known case of trichomoniasis in the United States in Pennsylvania in 1932 (Kissinger, 2015). Since then, cases of trichomoniasis have been documented both domestically and internationally. The significance of this illness nowadays has led to regulations governing the interstate and frequently intrastate transportation of bulls throughout a large portion of the US mainland.

Epidemiology

Numerous studies have been published regarding the epidemiological features of bovine trichomoniasis. In addition, several elements that contribute to the prevalence of trichomoniasis are revealed by clinical impressions obtained from handling both infected and uninfected herds (Jin et al., 2020). These factors fall into three categories: management, cow, and bull factors (Molina et al., 2018). The degree of the herd’s infection and the resulting financial loss are determined by the way these factors interact. Bull characteristics include age, quantity of bulls, number of infected bulls, duration of breeding season, capacity to mate, and libido. For cows, factors include age, immunological status, length of mating season, nutritional status, and time since last calving. Practices for managing pastures, purchasing new bulls, the duration of the breeding season, tactics for replacing the herd’s diet, fence upkeep, and other management aspects all interact closely (Gharban, 2023). A few typical causes linked to difficulties with bovine trichomoniasis include buying secondhand bulls or leasing bulls, cooperative grazing, introducing adult replacement bulls, the breeding season, and failing to consider effects other than nutritional ones (Yao et al., 2011).

Globally, bovine trichomoniasis is a serious issue. The earliest reports of T. foetus infection in Iraq were made in the Nineveh province, where infection rates were greater in cattle older than 2–4 years old, and early embryonic mortality was noted (Gharban, 2023). Numerous herds of cattle are affected by this protozoal disease, which is pervasive and can be found in portions of Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, and South and North America (Michi et al., 2016). In Argentina, bovine trichomoniasis is prevalent and causes a 15%–25% drop in conception rates (Campero et al., 2003). In bull herds, the prevalence rates of bovine trichomoniasis are 3.6%–40.0% in Australia (Irons et al., 2022), 5.8%–38.5% in California (BonDurant et al., 1990), and 26.4% in Nigeria (Adeyeye et al., 2010).

Bulls infected with T. foetus have been described in numerous research from the United States, Spain, Austria, the Transkei Republic, Colombia, Tanzania, Nigeria, and Canada. Northern Spain is regarded as a hotspot for infection due to the continued use of natural breeding methods (Mendoza-Ibarra et al., 2012). The predicted rate of T. foetus infection in the US is modest when compared to other livestock illnesses (Martin et al., 2021). As a result, state-by-state execution of disparate regulations results from the lack of federal integration in the control of this disease. As of April 1, 2014, laws for the bovine trichomoniasis management program were in place in 26 states, with the goal of preventing the disease from spreading (Yao, 2021). The size of the herd and the proportion of bulls to cows have a significant impact on the frequency of infection. Herd size is one factor linked to elevated levels of bovine trichomoniasis in a herd (Perez et al., 1992). Therefore, large herds that share pasture, have a high proportion of bulls who are 4 years of age or older, and a high bull-to-cow ratio are at higher risk of infection (Mai et al., 2013).

Pathogenesis

The fundamental causes of bovine trichomoniasis-related embryonic or fetal death have not been precisely determined. However, a few of these processes include the parasite’s direct mechanical activity, the impact of antiparasitic inflammatory reactions in the uterus, and the side effects of enzymes secreted by protozoa (Petrópolis et al., 2008). It is believed that cytotoxicity and cytoadherence are the primary mechanisms. During the estrous cycle, the amount of T. foetus in cervical mucus varies; the maximum amount is seen a few days before the estrous phase (Paradiso and Oyhenart, 2023). Although the uterus is thought to be the main site of infection, a number of studies on spontaneously infected cattle have revealed that T. foetus prefers the cervix (Dąbrowska et al., 2019; Dąbrowska et al., 2020). Additionally observed are placentitis and a consistent pattern of fetal and placental lesions.

Variations in T. foetus strain pathogenicity are linked to the abortion fusion stage (Benchimol et al., 2017). Further research is necessary to determine the immunological status of the host or the threshold number of organisms that can infect it. Abortion is caused by bovine trichomoniasis, mainly in the early stages of pregnancy (Shaapan, 2016). During the first 2 weeks of infection, a tiny amount of purulent preputial discharge could be seen. The development of epithelial crypts in the preputial cavity may be the reason why older bulls seem to be lifelong carriers of T. foetus (Pereira-Neves and Benchimol, 2009). Following 6 months of pregnancy, T. foetus-related abortions are uncommon. The cow usually recovers spontaneously when the placenta and fetal membranes are removed after abortion (Shaapan, 2016). However, if portions of the placenta or membranes remain, chronic catarrhal or purulent endometritis may occur, which can result in permanent sterility (da Silva et al., 2011). Occasionally, maceration takes place in the uterus when abortion fails to take place following fetal death. Studies on the effects of T. foetus on the conceptus and abortion-causing factors are lacking. Tumor necrosis factor may play a part in malaria-induced miscarriage, and trichomoniasis in cows may be largely caused by lymphokine-mediated cytotoxicity.

Immune response

Immunity to T. foetus has been the subject of very little contemporary research, but a thorough assessment of earlier work has been conducted. Using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent test, recent experimental research has not shown any appreciable amounts of T. foetus-specific blood IgA, IgG, or IgM (Menezes and Tasca, 2016). Intradermal challenges to infected cattle have shown hypersensitivity reactions, although it is still unclear how IgE functions in the trichomoniasis pathophysiology (Soto and Parma, 1989). Infected cows are able to remove the parasite from their reproductive system and become temporarily resistant to reinfection, even if circulating antibodies do not seem to offer much protection against reinfection (Dąbrowska et al., 2019).

Recent experimental tests have shown simultaneous clearance of T. foetus from the uterus, cervix, and vagina (Agnew et al., 2008). This finding may be the result of local antibodies to T. foetus, as prior research has indicated. Approximately 8 weeks after infection, there was an increase in vaginal and cervical IgA and IgGl responses; uterine IgA and IgGl elevations happened around week 11. IgM is seen in very small amounts, while IgG2 is only briefly seen, peaking in the cervix at week 11 and the vagina at week 14 (Ikeda et al., 1995). During infection, a variety of antigens ranging in size from 20 to 200 kDa are detected, and the specificity of IgA and IgGl responses varies. However, the detection of high molecular weight antigens seems to be associated with the clearance of parasites.

While lymphocytes and polymorphs from mice inoculated with live T. foetus have been demonstrated to kill the parasite on contact in vitro, there is currently little data supporting cell-mediated immunity in bovine trichomoniasis (Najera et al., 2024). Aborted bovine fetuses have been shown to exhibit pulmonary macrophage phagocytosis of T. foetus (Tolbert and Gookin, 2016).

Pathology

In fetuses that have been aborted, microscopic lesions include necrotizing enteritis and pyogranulomatous bronchopneumonia with trichomonads invading the tissues (Rhyan et al., 1988). Specifically, the pulmonary airways are home to a large number of extracellular, phagocytosed neutrophils, macrophages, multinucleated giant cells, and trichomonads (Milde et al., 2015). The interstitium contains tiny, localized collections of plasma cells and lymphocytes. Certain trichomonads are dispersed throughout the interlobular septa’s connective tissue in aborted fetuses, where they gather in the fetus’s subpleural veins and interlobular septa (Rhyan et al., 1995). Furthermore, the fetus can have noticeable localized hemorrhages in the airways of some pulmonary lobules and the interlobular septa. In the gastrointestinal system, mild focal epithelial degeneration to diffuse necrosis and epithelium loss may transpire (Yao and Köster, 2015). There could be significant subserosal, mucosal, and mucosal bleeding in the fetus. Moreover, thrombotic lesions may be present in the small and large intestine, abomasum, and foregut (Njaa et al., 2012). Several sizable intraepithelial vesicles with erythrocytes and fibrin strands surface in the mucosa of the rumen and omasum covering the hemorrhagic center.

Clinical symptoms

No overt clinical symptoms are observed in cases with bovine trichomoniasis. The herd is showing signs of disease: prolonged post-coital vaginal discharge, aborted fetuses (anytime during gestation from 2 to 5 months), chronic infertility, and return to work after 4–5 months (with a higher incidence in heifers) (Gharban, 2023). Clinical symptoms in cattle range from moderate endometritis or vaginitis to acute inflammation of the entire reproductive system (Gharban, 2023). Pregnancy-related infections result in metritis, pyometra, early embryonic demise, and abortion (Givens and Marley, 2008).

Within 3–5 weeks after coitus, a recurrence of infection suggests an infection and consequent infertility or early termination. For cows infected for the first time, the reduction in birth rates of about 18% was highest in the first 2 years, with diminishing productivity losses in the following years (Yao, 2021). Recovering cattle typically have a 1–3-year immunity against infection, though individual animals may differ in this regard (Underwood et al., 2015). Infected bulls do not exhibit any clinical indications.

Diagnosis

Bulls that are suspected of having bovine trichomoniasis should have their preputial cavity sampled and then sent to a laboratory for positive organism identification (Waldner et al., 2017). The following sampling methods are utilized to obtain diagnostic specimens from bulls: douche, wet pipette, dry pipette, and swab. In Europe, the douche method is the method of choice for sampling, whereas in the US, one of the most popular approaches is the dry pipette technique (Parker et al., 2003). Bulls should normally be sexually rested 1–2 weeks before testing, regardless of the method employed. Sexual rest may facilitate the reproduction of organisms and increase the likelihood of recovery during sampling, since mechanical breeding eliminates a large number of organisms from the bull’s prepuce and penis. Samples may be submitted for analysis at the molecular level or under a microscope. Although T. foetus can be identified by direct microscopic inspection of the specimen, in vitro cultivation of preputial smegma in selected nutrient media for up to 1 week is a far more sensitive technique (Dąbrowska et al., 2019). Tritrichomonas foetus can proliferate at more readily detectable quantities in vitro. It is important to confirm any cultures that contain organisms similar to T. foetus using suitable molecular-based techniques to prevent false-positive results caused by contamination of the culture medium by fecal trichomonads (Felleisen et al., 1998). The most widely utilized technique for diagnosing T. foetus in the United States at the moment is in vitro culture using Diamond or InPouchTM TF medium (Loy et al., 2023).

As an alternative, samples can be sent straight for analysis using molecular biology. The preferred test for molecular-based testing at the moment is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR is now a valuable diagnostic tool for bovine trichomoniasis because of improved techniques (Nickel et al., 2002). In contrast to in vitro cultivation, PCR can be completed in a few hours, yielding test findings more quickly. Since false negative results are frequent, the evaluation of a single sample using either method may produce inconclusive findings. Sequential testing, weekly bull sampling, and test repetition optimize the sensitivity and specificity of culture and PCR (Polo et al., 2022). In parallel testing, one sample is used for both culture and PCR confirmation to increase the accuracy of identifying positive bulls (Mukhufhi et al., 2003). It is personally advised to submit three samples for parallel testing at 1-week intervals to optimize the sampling technique. Until three negative test results are obtained, a bull should not be regarded as negative.

Transmission

To date, sexual contact is the known method of transmission of T. foetus (Dąbrowska et al., 2020). The source of infection is T. foetus-infected bulls. Cows with the infection may hold the parasite in their reproductive system for several weeks or months (Gharban, 2023). A bull is prone to contract the disease if it mates with an affected heifer and is older than 4 years old. Bulls above the age of four are less likely to contract an infection, although older bulls will get infected and remain infected for life. Young bulls can be utilized in modified control programs. The T. foetus organism is mechanically transmitted during reproduction from the penis to the vagina (Martin et al., 2023). The organism grows best in the female reproductive tract, which begins in the vagina, moves into the uterus, and finally develops into the growing embryo or fetus (Jin et al., 2020). These microbes typically do not infect semen. However, when semen is collected artificially, it is possible for semen to become contaminated if preputial fluid is transferred into the artificial vagina. Semen thinners and antibiotics are innocuous to T. foetus organisms, and they can survive freezing conditions much like sperm cells in semen (Ribeiro et al., 2021). Artificial insemination is a possible means of transfer, however it is most likely uncommon.

Economic impact

There is a dearth of knowledge on the economic effects of bovine trichomoniasis. According to a recent study, Oklahoma suffers annual losses of between $5 and $7 million due to bovine trichomoniasis. This was extrapolated from a study of bulls in slaughterhouses to the entire cattle population. This extrapolation’s correctness is under doubt.

Information regarding economic losses due to herds is not available. Lower calf weaning weights resulting from delayed conception, greater culling rates, and decreased birth rates are the main causes of herd economic losses (Martin et al., 2021). Every study year, losses in calves from bovine trichomoniasis were documented because infected herds experienced lower birth rates and delayed conception. Infected herds had an average conception delay of 40 days and an 18% fall in birth rate (Yao, 2021). With this data and some educated guesses about calves’ typical daily weight increase, marketing, and weaning, the herd would make $85.00 more per cow if we kept them uninfected. It is assumed that all calves are born alive and weaned, that all unbred heifers are euthanized, and that calves gain 1.75 pounds on average each day. Because of lower weaning weights, prices were estimated to be $90.00/cwt for steers, $85.00/cwt for heifers in uninfected herds, and $96.00/cwt for steers and $91.00/cwt for heifers in infected herds. It is believed that the cost of the cattle to be culled is $45.00/cwt.

Treatment

A large portion of the early research on treatment was conducted in Germany and was based on bull treatment techniques. There have not been any significant attempts to create a treatment plan for cows because illnesses in them self-limit (Ortega-Mora et al., 2022). Sexual rest can generally cure the infection. Topical medicine is applied to the penis and foreskin as the primary treatment for bulls. Different systems are combined with different kinds of ointments to cleanse or sedate the penis and foreskin. Later, it was discovered that a massage-cleansing system with a specific dye solution worked well. According to Love et al. (2017), dimetridazole administered intravenously (50 mg per kg fdr 1 day) or orally (50 mg per kg everyday for 5 days) has been successfully used. The preferred medications for treating infected bulls up to this point have been metronidazole or dimetridazole. These drugs work well, but they can have harmful side effects. Since these medications are insoluble in water, they must be dissolved in an acidic solution. The most common diluent for intravenous injections is 20% sulfuric acid (Friedman et al., 2020). Bulls are susceptible to some negative effects. It is preferable to take it orally as mouthwash or capsules rather than feed. Animals may refuse to eat feed that has the medication given to them because the chemical is unpleasant. If the course of treatment is not finished, T. foetus may also get resistant to the medication.

Recently, another imidazole compound, ipronidazole hydrochloride (Ipropran), has been discovered to be beneficial (Skirrow et al., 1985). Because it dissolves in water, this substance can be easily injected intramuscularly (30 g per bull in 40 ml of water) without causing the negative consequences that come with dimetridazole. To lessen the chance that bacteria in the prepuce have the ability to deactivate ipronidazole, nonetheless, the effective usage of this medication requires the administration of antibiotic therapy (broad-spectrum antibiotics for 3–4 days).

Control

The distinct epidemiological features of bovine trichomoniasis determine the best prevention and control measures. Bulls are asymptomatic carriers of this sexually transmitted T. foetus and a lifelong source of infection, in contrast to cows and heifers, which typically have a temporary infection (Martin et al., 2021). Effective management is the key to controlling bovine trichomoniasis. Before being used for breeding, all of the herd’s bulls as well as any later replacements should have their trichomonad status checked at least once every 3 weeks. Young virgin bulls (≤ 2 years) should be brought into the herd to replace the infected bulls (Dufernez et al., 2007).

A whole switch from natural services to artificial insemination may not be feasible, but artificial insemination can successfully control the spread of T. foetus (Dąbrowska et al., 2019). Cows that have recently had an abortion or pyometra should be culled if a herd has been exposed to T. foetus (Lefebvre, 2015). Cattle herds exposed to bovine trichomoniasis can be split into two groups: nonpregnant cows should be sexually rested for a minimum of four months to allow their bodies to naturally flush out T. foetus organisms from their urogenital tract and pregnant cows should be monitored to prevent abortion (Jin et al., 2014). Before being moved to herds containing uninfected cows, cows in infected herds should likewise be sexually rested for 90 days postpartum, or at least two regular estrus cycles following the start of the breeding season (Underwood et al., 2015).

All new herd members should be screened to prevent bovine trichomoniasis. Only animals from established herds or virgin cattle should be added to an existing herd, as testing protocols for individual cattle are not well-established (EFSA et al., 2017). If it is not feasible, before adding any more females to the herd, they should all be cultured on many samples. It has been demonstrated that T. foetus immunity may be induced in cows immunized before mating by one commercial “bacterin-type” vaccine and multiple experimental antigen vaccines (Nielsen et al., 2021).

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Conclusion

Cattle with bovine trichomoniasis, a sexually transmitted illness peculiar to a particular host, continue to suffer significant financial loss from infertility and abortion. Bulls that are infected typically show no symptoms. The infection can be diagnosed by culturing and molecular techniques. Artificial insemination can successfully control the spread of T. foetus.

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Acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge the Kementerian Pendidikan, Kebudayaan, and Riset dan Teknologi that have funded this research.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

Funding

This review article is funded by the Airlangga Research Fund 2024 with grant number: 672/UN3/2024.

Author’s contributions

HAH, ARK, YD, and ES drafted the manuscript. SW, BWKW, DAAK, and IBM revise and edit the manuscripts. SHW, KAF, WT, and JJ took part in preparing and critically checking this manuscript. IF, FE, and MKJK edit the references. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Data availability

All references are open access, so data can be obtained from the online web.

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