Open Veterinary Journal, (2025), Vol. 15(7): 3104-3114

Research Article

10.5455/OVJ.2025.v15.i7.22

Quality and pesticide residue in sheep feed: Effects of fermentation on organic and inorganic material

Desy Cahya Widianingrum¹, Sri Wahyuningsih^2*, Indarto², Purnaning Dhian Isnaeni¹, Siti Lailatul Mufidah¹ and Nisa Afifah Nurfadilah¹

¹Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Jember, Jember, Indonesia

²Department of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture Technology, Universitas of Jember, Jember, Indonesia

*Corresponding Author: Sri Wahyuningsih. Department of Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture Technology, Universitas of Jember, Jember, Indonesia. Email: sriwahyuningsih.ftp [at] unej.ac.id

Submitted: 05/02/2025 Revised: 17/06/2025 Accepted: 20/06/2025 Published: 31/07/2025

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ABSTRACT

Background: The practice of feeding agricultural waste to animals, especially sheep, is common in Indonesia. The market demand for organic sheep meat has increased these days. However, the availability of organic feed is an obstacle to organic livestock farming, particularly in Indonesia, where agriculture depends heavily on chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Feed processing that reduces pesticide residue levels is a step as an alternative feed provider for beginner organic farmers.

Aim: This research aims to analyze changes in nutritional quality, fiber fraction, digestibility, rumen environmental conditions, and pesticide residue levels in organic and inorganic rations with fermentation treatment.

Methods: The research treatments were divided into organic and non-organic groups, and each group was then divided into fermented and non-fermented treatments. Fermentation was carried out using Starbio^® for 21 days. All treatment feeds were prepared to meet the needs of sheep using the same composition formula. The ration consisted of rice straw, rice bran, pollard, corn, fish meal, Azolla, molasses, salt, and CaCO₃. The research data were analyzed and presented in a quantitative descriptive manner.

Results: The results showed that the non-fermented feeds exhibited higher nutritional quality, including the fiber profile and total volatile fatty acid, compared to fermented feeds. The fermentation process increases the digestibility and reduces pesticide residues, particularly parathion levels up to 0.15 ppm.

Conclusion: This research concludes that the fermentation process increases digestibility and reduces pesticide residues in the ration for both organic and non-organic sources, but does not improve the overall nutritional value of the non-fermented feed.

Keywords: Nutritional quality, Fiber fraction, Digestibility, Pesticide residue.

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Introduction

The consumption of organic products trend is increasing worldwide and is likely to continue. Although global organic food sales have slowed since 2008, the market has increased over three-fold between 2000 and 2010 (Willer et al., 2024). In 2010, the countries with the largest organic markets were only the US, Germany, and France, but in 2023, they have spread into several countries such as Africa, Asia, Europe, Latin America, North America, and Oceania countries (Buder et al., 2014; Willer et al., 2024). These findings are due to consumer awareness of the correlation between health, nutrition, and natural environmental sustainability (Goetzke et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2018). The fact that there are product-specific purchase barriers for organic food consumers. The willingness to buy and pay for organic products differs among consumers, depending on their life background, especially their financial capabilities (Sriwaranun et al., 2015; Aschemann–Witzel and Zielke, 2017).

The high cost of organic products is due to the organic quality requirements that must be met. The main requirement for organic livestock farming is to ensure that the system implements environmentally friendly and animal welfare methods. Breeders must be committed to caring for animals in accordance with animal welfare principles. Specifically, using chemicals in fertilizers, medicines, additives, and feeds does not permit products to be labeled organic (The Indonesian National Standard: 6729, 2016; European Commission, 2021). This increases the cost of organic livestock products costlier, likely due to a lot of support on the production chain (Zikeli et al., 2014).

Indonesia holds the opportunity to be a major supplier of organic livestock due to its abundant natural resources and agricultural waste, which are commonly used as ruminant feed sources. However, this is largely limited by the heavy use of chemical pesticides for pest control. Most Indonesian farmers (95.29%) choose chemical pesticides because they are easier to use, more effective, and cheaper than natural pesticides (Andesgur, 2019). Although the use of pesticides has been proven to reduce harvest losses of fruit production by 78%, vegetable production by 54%, and ceral production by 32% (Tudi et al., 2021), it also pose a threat to human and environmental health, including the reduction of biodiversity (Jamin et al., 2024), decrease of soil nutrient (Sinambela, 2024), increase of pesticide-resistant insects (Moekasan and Prabaningrum, 2021), and damage to human health via direct and indirect exposure (Shekhar et al., 2024).

This research highlights the problem of feed availability to support organic livestock cultivation. Organic animal farming requires that the feed is composed of 100% organic ingredients or at least 85% dry matter (DM) sourced from organic forage. In some cases, when the source is limited, the policy states that feed for organic farming can be composed of limited use of non-organic ingredients, as long as it is not genetically modified. Animal-source ingredients, such as meat bone meal, should not contain pesticide residue. Organic animal feed also requires that minerals, provitamins, and vitamins are from natural sources. Additives may be used only from non-genetically modified organisms and non-genetically engineered products. Salt, yeast, enzymes, molasses, and other natural sources additives are permitted as per Indonesian National Standard regulation (2016). The aforementioned regulation also states that non-organic plants can be used only if they are produced using non-chemical solvents or treatments. A couple of studies reported that pesticide residues can be reduced by the fermentation process (Ge et al., 2021; Armenova et al., 2023). According to the aforementioned statements, this study aimed to examine the effect of feed fermentation on the nutritional content, digestibility, and pesticide residues of organic feed formulated for sheep compared with non-organic feed.

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Materials and Methods

Study period and location

This research was conducted from January to March 2024 in several Laboratories. The fermentation process was carried out in the Livestock Laboratory, Jember University, Jember, East Java, Indonesia. Analysis of nutrition content, fiber profile, digestibility, and rumen environmental conditions, including volatile fatty acids (VFA), ammonia (NH3), and rumen pH, was tested in the Livestock Research Institute Laboratory, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia. Residue pesticides were tested at the Balingtan Laboratory in Pati, Central Java, Indonesia.

Feed ration formula

All treatment rations contained a mixture of feed ingredients: rice straw, rice bran, pollard, corn, fish meal, Azolla, molasses, salt, and CaCO₃. The organic feed used in this study was obtained from the Lombok Kulon Organic Farm in Bondowoso Regency, East Java. Azolla was cultivated in manure at the Livestock Laboratory of Jember University. The non-organic feed ingredients were obtained from Lampeji Village, Jember, East Java. The nutritional contents of feed ingredients used in this research are presented in Table 1.

All treatment rations were prepared to meet the needs of sheep using the same composition formula. This research examined two major groups of feed: 85% organic–sourced feed and non-organic–sourced feed. Each group was then divided into a fermented and a non-fermented treatment. 85% of organic sources in the feed were implemented due to limited access to organic source feed in the area. In addition, based on SNI 6729:2016, farming can still be considered organic if 85% of the DM of feed comes from organic sources. Each treatment in this study was made on four replications. The formulation ratios are listed in Table 2.

Table 1. The feed ingredients in this research.

Table 2. Formulas research ration.

Silage preparation

Ration fermentation was carried out using the StarBio^® starter and incubated for 21 days at room temperature and humidity for the fermented organic and non-organic groups (Fang et al., 2020). The length of fermentation was 21 days in this research because StarBio^® has been proven to be effective in increasing in-vitro dry matter digestibility (DMD) and in-vitro organic matter digestibility (OMD) (Fadhlullah, 2021; Marlida et al., 2023). For the experiment, each formulation was prepared in a 1-kg bag and fermented for 21 days. The amount of StarBio^® used was 125 g for each kilogram of feed formulation. Each treatment was repeated four times.

Nutrient content analysis

Nutrient content was analyzed by proximate analysis, which consisted of water, DM, ash, organic matter (OM), crude protein (CP), crude lipid (CL), fiber, and ether extract content. The water and ash contents were analyzed by the gavimetric method (Holik et al., 2019). Water content was analyzed by putting 100 g of sample in a 60 °C oven, CP content was analyzed by the Kjeldahl method, and CL content was analyzed by the Soxhlet method (Holik et al., 2019). Nutritional content and fiber profile were analyzed by the proximate and Van Soest analysis method (Hudaya et al., 2018).

Analysis of digestibility and rumen environmental conditions

In vitro techniques using rumen inocula were used to estimate total digestibility values and environmental conditions (Russouw et al., 2016). Determination of DMD was conducted after 48 hours of incubation. The content of each in vitro tube was filtered using a sintered glass tube and vacuum. The incubation residue was heated at 105°C for 24 hours to calculate the DMD and OMD. The supernatant was sampled for the analysis of VFA, ammonia (NH3), and pH. The concentration of individual VFAs was analyzed by [gas liquid chromatography Scion Bruker 436-gas chromatography (GC), Bruker Daltonik GmbH, Bremen, Germany] using a column (BR-Wax fame, mmlD 0.32, 0.25 ml df) and FID detector. The ammonia concentration was analyzed according to the method of Conway (1950). The pH value was measured using a pH meter.

Pesticide residue content

Analysis of pesticide residue was conducted using GC) with a flame photometric detector (Zhao et al., 2014).

Data analysis

All data were analyzed and reported quantitatively and descriptively in tables and discussions.

Ethical approval

This study did not involve any animals. This study focused on the fermentation of animal feeds collected from organic and non-organic sources, and analyzed their nutritional values in the laboratory. The rumen liquid used in this study was collected from a slaughterhouse in Bondowoso, Indonesia.

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Results

The data on nutrition content are presented in Table 3, fiber profiles are presented in Table 4, digestibility is presented in Figure 1, rumen environmental conditions are presented in Table 5, and pesticide residue contents are presented in Table 6.

Table 3. Nutrient content of treatment rations.

Table 4. Fraction fiber of treatment ration.

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Discussion

The data presented in Table 1 suggested that the treatment rations have met the standards for sheep rations; however, the ash content for all treatments was higher than the Indonesian standard (maximum of 8%), and CP content was lower than the Indonesian standard (minimum of 10%) for non-organic, fermented treatment Indonesian National Standardregulation (2019). The ash percentage correlated negatively with the OM content in the ration. Higher ash content in ruminant diets was suggested in the presence of higher fiber sources, such as hay, legumes, and forage (Hoffman, 2005). Ash content was also determined by the inorganic material that may have contaminated the feed, such as soil. Ogodo et al. (2017) also mentioned that fermentation significantly increased the ash content in maize flour. Ash content was positively correlated with mineral content in the feed, which was significant in ruminants, particularly for milk production. This statement was supported by Schären et al. (2016), who found that replacing total mixed ration feed with pasture resulted in positive changes in lactating cows, particularly after an adaptation period of 7 weeks in milk production and body weight. However, using full forage in livestock for fattening purposes was ineffective. Zhang et al. (2022) suggested that concentrated-intensive fed sheep showed heavier body weight, increased production performance, and improved meat color, texture, and fatty acid profile compared to full-forage fed sheep. This research combined high-nutrition ingredients, such as corn, rice bran, pollard, and so on, to fulfill the sheep’s nutrition.

The slight difference in protein content in the non-organic, fermented treatment (9.97%) compared with the minimum standard of protein in sheep feed (10%) might be negligible. However, compared with the other treatments, this value was the lowest. The average CP content for organic (fermented and non-fermented) and non-organic-non-fermented treatments was 13.42%, with each treatment’s CP content as follows: organic non-fermented feed (13.39%), organic fermented feed (13.48%), and non-organic non-fermented feed (13.40%). Low CP content was also observed in rice straw fermented by StarBio for 14, 21, or 28 days, resulting in CP contents of 11.78%, 6.68%, and 7.61%, respectively (Akbar et al., 2022). The low protein content of non-organic fermented feed may be due to the fermentation process. The decrease in the CP content examined in this study was partly attributed to the metabolic process by microorganisms and enzymes on lipids and sugar (Alrosan et al., 2022). A similar value for CP content can be examined in the non-fermented and fermented feeds. Furthermore, optimization studies of fermentation conditions and sources may offer different outcomes. The varied protein compounds in organic and non-organic feed materials used in this research might contribute to the difference in the CP content results of the fermented products. However, this finding showed that organic-sourced feed did not reduce the protein content in the total ration of sheep, so the notion that organic-fed livestock received less nutritional content was likely untrue.

Fig. 1. OMD and DMD of treatment ration.

The crude fiber content examined in this study varied in each treatment group. The crude fiber content examined in the fermented feed groups was higher than that in the non-fermented feed groups (15.54% vs. 11.62% in organic feed and 13.36% vs. 10.77% in non-organic feed. The results of this study were lower than research by Akbar et al. (2022), who reported that the crude fiber content of fermented rice straw was 25%–29%. Sangadji et al. (2019) reported increased crude fiber content in fermented sago by-products produced using white root fungi. While the fermenters used in this study and Sangadji’s research differed, there were significant increases in the crude fibers examined in the fermented feed. The increase in crude fiber content was attributed to the composition of Starbio^®. Starbio^® is an anaerobic probiotic collected from the rumen, packed in soil, and composted dried leaves and twigs (Gunawan and Sundari, 2003). Aside from the microbiota content of Starbio^® which consisted of Clostridium thermocellulosa (fat digester); Agaricus sp and Coprinus sp (lignin digester), and Klebssiella sp and Azozpirillum trasiliensis (protein digester), it also contained the nutritional value of CP (10.42%), crude fat (0.11%), ash (51.54%), and crude fiber (8.37%) (Sulistyo, 1996; Gunawan and Sundari, 2003). Using Starbio^® as a fermenter slightly increased the content of crude fiber in the formulated rations. However, the rations in this research were designed for ruminants, so the increase in crude fiber content can be disregarded. However, considering the scale of this research, further analysis and examination of the effect of StarBio fermentation on different feedstuffs individually and combined should be addressed. This research provided a small-scale interpretation of the effects of StarBio on complete-formula feed for ruminants, particularly sheep.

The fiber fractions were analyzed to evaluate the different components of the total crude fiber. The results of the fiber fractions analyze were presented in Table 4.

The lowest neutral detergent fiber (NDF) value was examined on the non-fermented organic feed, at 23.43%. The NDF values were typically higher in fermented feed in both groups, and the fermented organic feed treatment resulted in the highest NDF value of 38.43%. The NDF value represented the rough estimate of the cell wall constructed from cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and silica in the feed. Meanwhile, the acid detergent fiber (ADF) was estimated to be the least digestible fiber, such as cellulose, lignin, and silica. An increase in both NDF and ADF value is widely known to decrease the digestibility value of feed (Springer et al., 2023). This method is particularly applicable to lignin, which forms a strong lignin-polysaccharide bond with hemicellulose and is relatively difficult to degrade (Parastiwi et al., 2024). High lignin content indicates high insoluble NDF in feed, resulting in low digestibility (Raffrenato et al., 2018).

Table 5. Rumen environmental condition of treatment ration.

Table 6. Pesticide residue content of treatment ration.

Cellulose and hemicellulose are the main parts of plant cell walls that can be degraded and fermented by anaerobic microbes in the rumen to produce VFA (Weimer, 2022). The higher values of both cellulose and hemicellulose in the fermented groups were attributed to the nature of the Starbio^® composition of dried leaves and twigs. However, analysis of nutritional values alone could not be the determining factor of feed quality. Digestibility analysis should also be conducted to determine feed quality. The digestibility analysis of this research is presented in Figure 1.

The DMD of fermented feed was higher than that of non-fermented feed in both groups: 64.20% on fermented organic feed versus 60.10% on non-fermented organic feed and 67.99% on fermented non-organic feed versus 63.07% on non-fermented non-organic feed. This trend was also examined on OMD. The availability of digestible material in fermented feeds was significantly increased. This could be caused by the destruction of crude fiber by microorganisms during the fermentation process. The nutrient content of the feed, particularly crude fiber, was metabolized by microorganisms in the fermenter before it even reached the rumen, so the ruminal microorganisms could digest the feed more easily, thus resulting in increased total digestibility in both DM and OM.

The fermentation process in both the organic and non-organic feed groups exhibited reduced total VFA and increased NH3 levels in vitro. The VFA values indicated the amount of energy ready to be absorbed by the rumen. Aside from their function as the main energy source for ruminants, VFAs also affect gastrointestinal development, milk yield and composition, rumen microbiota, and body weight gain (Parchami et al., 2024). The total VFA value for the fermented feed was lower than the non-fermented feeds: 93.97 versus 133.30 on organic-sourced feed and 73.54 versus 95.54 on non-organic feed. This result agreed with Lee et al. (2023), which showed decreased VFA value of fermented concentrate in vivo.

It was suggested that starbio® has metabolized some of the feed ingredients before they reached the rumen; thus, the total VFA examined is lower than those in the non-fermented groups. However, the total digestibility value of both DM and OM was higher in the fermented groups. This might be due to the digestion process by Starbio^® and the ruminal microbiota; therefore, postrumen digestion contributed more to the total digestibility value. Intake of fermented concentrate improves microbial diversity within the rumen, thus enhancing microbial activity, which is crucial for digestion (Lee et al., 2023). Despite the varied VFA values of each treatment, the VFA values examined in this research were still within the normal range. It can, therefore, be concluded that supplementing non-organic material with organic material and fermenting the feed did not reduce the quality of the feed based on VFA values.

The results observed in this research showed that the fermentation process increased the ammonia value of feed digested in the rumen. This suggests that the CP metabolized by the ruminal microbiota was higher in fermented than in non-fermented feeds. This result was similar to the results obtained by Lee et al. (2023), in which the ammonia level was higher by about 5 mg/dl in fermented concentrate feed compared to non-fermented concentrate examined in Hanwoo steers. However, the ammonia values examined in this research were still within the normal ammonia levels of 1–16 mM/l.

The overview of the data obtained in this research suggests that the values differed in digestibility, even if the proximate analysis showed high nutritional value (on non-fermented organic and non-organic feeds). The determination of a good complex feed relied not only on the proximate analysis evaluation but also on its digestibility value. The total VFA values for all treatments were considered normal in the 80–160 mMol range (Van Soest, 1982), except for the fermented non-organic feed, which was lower than normal (73.54 mMol). This finding may be beneficial for adding to the discussion of the quality of ruminant feed. Higher digestibility values accompanied by lower total VFA levels obtained in this study were considered better options for ruminant feed than higher total VFA numbers but lower digestibility values.

According to the assumptions above, the non-organic, non-fermented feed was considered the best nutritious feed for ruminants among other treatments. This particular treatment had the lowest water and ash contents, each valued at 5.22% and 10.71%, respectively. This suggested that the non-organic, non-fermented feed contained more OM that could be used by ruminants in their diet. Besides its nutritional content, the VFA ratio of non-organic, non-fermented feed was considered the best for fattening sheep among the other treatments. Acetate (C2) was associated with milk fat production, and butyrate increased trans-10 C18:1 concentration in milk, indicating a shift in the rumen biohydrogenation pathway. Furthermore, acetic acid is generally used as an energy source and is nonglucogenic in animal tissues. Propionic acid is the main precursor for the formation of blood glucose, and it is a glucogenic (Vlaeminck et al., 2006). A high acetate-to-butyrate-to-propionate ratio indicated that the feed was more suitable for dairy ruminants, whereas a lower ratio of feed was considered more suitable for fattening ruminants (Widianingrum and Salasia, 2019). According to the VFA data alone, the non-organic, non-fermented feed was suggested for the fattening period, whereas the organic and fermented feed was suggested for the lactating period.

The fermentation process carried out in this research did not provide improvement in nutritional value, but increased digestibility and reduced pesticide residue levels (Table 6).

The Table 6 suggest that all treatments, both organic and non-organic feed, contain low to almost nonexistent pesticide residues aside from parathion. Parathion is a synthetic organic thiophosphate compound that acts as a cholinesterase inhibitor and is mainly used as an acaricide and insecticide (National Center for Biotechnology Information, 2025). The maximum residue of parathion in food and animal feed according to FAO was 0.05 ppm (Food and Agriculture Organization, 1997). The fermentation process conducted in this research was proven to be effective in reducing the parathion level in the feed by 0.15 ppm compared with the non-fermented feeds. It was suggested that microorganisms decompose organophosphate compounds into simpler and less hazardous compounds during fermentation (Carvalho, 2017). The parathion detected in the organic feeds was attributed to the 15% non-organic material used, consisting of maize and pollard. The duration of fermentation also took part in reducing the parathion residue level; previous research has shown that the parathion level in apples continued to decrease as they were harvested at longer time intervals from the pesticide application (Food and Agriculture Organization, 1997). This indicated that for the 15% non-organic material used as organic feed, it was best to harvest the material long after pesticide application to further decrease the parathion residue in the feed.

Other pesticide residues were not detected in all treatments, including diazinon, fenitrothion, malathion, chlorpyrifos, methidathion, profenofos, lindane, heptachlor, aldrin, endosulfan, dieldrin, endrin, and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). Like parathion, other compounds such as diazinon, fenitrothion, malathion, methidathion, profenofos, and chlorpyrifos are organophosphorus pesticides commonly used in agriculture. Organophosphorus pesticides inhibit acetylcholinesterase in the nervous system, which accumulates acetylcholine receptors, leading to death (Ula and Singh, 2025). The residues of this compound in animal feed, particularly those sourced from agricultural waste, pose a risk of residue in meat (Sara et al., 2019). Lindane, aldrin, endosulfan, dieldrin, DDT, and endrin are organochloride pesticides widely used in Asia (Jayaraj et al., 2017). It caused a large variety of effects, including endocrine dysfunction, mutagenesis, disruption of hormone function, and carcinogenesis (Tzanetou and Karasali, 2022). Heptachlor, a chlorinated cyclodiene pesticide, is categorized as a persistent organic pollutant. It is primarily used to control termites and soil insects. Exposure to heptachlor primarily occurs through residues in food (World Health Organization, 1984).

The reduction of pesticide residues during fermentation has mostly been focused on food products (Armenova et al., 2023). Biodegradation of organophosphate was possible through the fermentation process using bacteria such as Lactobacillus plantarum (Lee et al., 2021; Yuan et al., 2015) and Leuconostoc mesenteroides sourced from kimchi (Haque et al., 2020). Pesticides did not influence bacterial growth and fermentation activity, and nearly all pesticides were degraded by L. plantarum (Mohammadi et al., 2021). Most pesticide residues found in crops can be reduced by the fermentation process due to the microbial enzymes that degrade or adsorb pesticides (Armenova et al., 2023).

Pesticide limit regulations in organic farming vary quite various, depending on the country or region to which they apply. In general, these regulations aim to minimize pesticide residues in food through specific production practices. Fully organic animal farming is considered new in Indonesia; thus, the Indonesian standard for organic animal feed slightly differs from European or the USA’s standards. The Indonesian standard for organic animal feed requires that at least 85% feedstuffs were organic. However, chemical and pesticide residues should be none. This regulation has a great impact on feed supplies, particularly for ruminant farmers who use agricultural waste for feed. The use of agricultural waste was aimed at promoting sustainable farming, considering Indonesia’s massive agro-culture products.

These findings suggest that fermentation could become an option for reducing pesticide residue in agricultural waste. Agricultural waste containing pesticide residue is considered harmful to the environment and unsafe to use as animal feed. Various methods have been established to reduce the pesticide and chemical residues found in agricultural products. Traditional methods of processing foods, such as washing, blanching, boiling, peeling, and juicing, can reduce pesticide residue in agricultural products (Munir et al., 2024). However, these methods are time-consuming and unusual for feed preparation. Animal feed formulated from agricultural waste is typically prepared by fermenting the feedstuffs. The fermentation process has been demonstrated to be effective in increasing the nutritional content of agricultural waste (Zhang et al., 2024) and helping reduce pesticide residue in agricultural products (Ge et al., 2021; Armenova et al., 2023). Fermentation can be useful both for increasing nutritional content and reducing pesticide residue in animal feed, especially for organic farmers. Beginner organic farmers have been struggling to maintain pesticide-free feedstuffs, and fermenting such feedstuffs might help with this. The Indonesian standard for organic farming requires a minimum of 85% of feedstuffs originating from organic sources, but the remaining 15% must also be pesticide- and chemical-free. Fermentation can be an answer to these problems. Beginner organic farmers can easily obtain their feedstuff from non-organic sources and then reduce the pesticide residue by fermentation while increasing its nutritional value.

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Conclusion

The conclusion of this research showed that the fermentation process increased digestibility and reduced pesticide residues in the feed, although it did not improve the overall nutritional value compared with the non-fermented feed. Non-organic feed sources can be used as organic animal feed after the fermentation process by Starbio^®. However, pesticide residue can be reduced by increasing the harvest time interval from the time of pesticide application. Organic sheep farmers can utilize fermentation for 21 days for non-organic agricultural waste as a feed source to help reduce the parathion residue in feedstuffs. Further research can be done to analyze the effect of the formulated feed can be done in vivo on bigger scale.

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Acknowledgments

We thank Lombok Kulon Organic Farming in Bondowoso Regency for their cooperation in our project.

Conflicts of interest

We certify that there are no conflicts of interest with any financial, personal, or other relationships with people or organizations related to the material discussed in the manuscript.

Funding

This research was financially supported by Grant Reworking from the Institute for Research and Community Service, Universitas Jember (grant number 3342/UN25.3.1/LT/2024).

Author contributions

Desy Cahya Widianingrum: Conceptualization; Methodology; Writing - Original Draft. Nisa Afifah Nurfadilah: Analysis Data; Software; Writing - Original Draft. Siti Lailatul Mufidah: Formal analysis; Writing - Original Draft. Purnaning Dhian Isnaeni: Writing - Review & Editing; Visualization. Indarto: Validation; Investigation. Sri Wahyuningsih: Supervision

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