Abstract
Background:
Camel urine (CU) has been used in traditional medicine across North Africa and the Middle East to treat various diseases and infections. Bacteria-induced illnesses remain a critical threat to human health worldwide.

Aim:
In this context, the present study aimed to bridge ethnopharmacological knowledge with laboratory evidence by documenting traditional beliefs regarding CU and evaluating its in vitro antibacterial efficacy against both standard and multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria.

Methods:
Semi-structured interviews with 450 informants to record their use of CU and perceptions of factors believed to enhance its medicinal effectiveness. The key variables of interest included storage, season, age, breed, physiological status, and camel dietary regimen. In parallel, 62 urine samples were collected based on these traditional criteria and tested in vitro against bacteria using the agar well diffusion method. Microscopical and biochemical parameters, along with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, were all performed to investigate factors influencing the antibacterial
activity of CU.

Results:
CU is traditionally used against viral (52%), bacterial (30%), and fungal (8%) infections. Most participants favored urine from pregnant camels (86.11%), especially during the first trimester (40%), and from those grazing on desert plants in the wet season (99.44%), whereas breed (68.89%) and age (76.67%) were considered unimportant. In vitro tests confirmed broad-spectrum antibacterial activity in all 62 samples, with no significant seasonal effect (p = 0.218), but urine from early pregnancy showed stronger activity for both American type culture collection and MDR strains. Biochemical profiling of the most active samples revealed lower sodium and salinity, higher pH, and elevated levels of chloride, potassium, proteins, urea, and creatinine. Fourier-transform infrared analysis identified a unique 1388 cm⁻¹ peak in the most active samples, suggesting the presence of a distinctive bioactive compound.

Conclusion:
These results confirm traditional therapeutic practices and suggest the potential of CU for novel antimicrobial drug development. This study emphasized the integration of community-based medicinal wisdom with experimental validation to identify effective natural treatments against contemporary health threats.

Key words: Ethnomedicinal knowledge; Camel urine; Antibacterial activity; MDR bacteria.