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Review Article


Avian influenza virus H5N1 and H9N2 subtypes in different birds and humans: Findings from an extensive evaluation

Saifur Rehman, Shakeeb Ullah, Mustofa Helmi Effendi, Budiastuti Budiastuti, Iwan Sahrial Hamid, Atta Ur Rahman, Ali Zaman, Muhammad Inam Ullah Malik, Saqib Ali Rustam, Sana Ullah, Zulqarnain Saleem.


Abstract
The H5N1 and H9N2 subtypes of the avian influenza virus (AIV), part of the Orthomyxoviridae family, induce one of the most severe zoonotic diseases. The harmful impacts of H5 and H9 avian influenza viruses can affect avian and mammalian species, including human health, and result in economic loss and public health hazards. It has been isolated from several avian species and humans throughout all continents, except Antarctica. The incidence of avian influenza fluctuates based on regional and temporal variables of various avian species and humans. The AIV subtypes are categorized into low-pathogenic and high-pathogenic according to their virulence. H9N2 was classified as low pathogenic, whereas H5N1 was deemed highly pathogenic. Molecular diagnostic tests, such as real-time polymerase chain reaction and conventional polymerase chain reaction, are used to identify avian influenza viruses. The most common serological tests, such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and hemagglutinin inhibition, are used to detect antibodies against influenza A and B viruses. AIV subtypes and host species affect the severity, clinical manifestations, and fatality rates of AIVs. Avian and swine infections are the primary vectors for the transmission of AIV to humans, presenting a considerable public health risk. An adequate surveillance system, a robust vaccination approach, and a segregation and culling protocol for avian influenza-infected birds are urgently required to eliminate avian influenza viruses. This comprehensive study provides a framework for understanding the risks associated with AIV subtypes H5 and H9. The goal is to avoid and control the disease, as it can spread into a major pandemic.

Key words: Epidemiology; Influenza virus; PCR; Public health; Zoonotic disease.


 
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How to Cite this Article
Pubmed Style

Rehman S, Ullah S, Effendi MH, Budiastuti B, Hamid IS, Rahman AU, Zaman A, Malik MIU, Rustam SA, Ullah S, Saleem Z. Avian influenza virus H5N1 and H9N2 subtypes in different birds and humans: Findings from an extensive evaluation. Open Vet. J.. 2026; 16(1): 1-14. doi:10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i1.1

Web Style

Rehman S, Ullah S, Effendi MH, Budiastuti B, Hamid IS, Rahman AU, Zaman A, Malik MIU, Rustam SA, Ullah S, Saleem Z. Avian influenza virus H5N1 and H9N2 subtypes in different birds and humans: Findings from an extensive evaluation. https://www.openveterinaryjournal.com/?mno=252720 [Access: January 31, 2026]. doi:10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i1.1

AMA (American Medical Association) Style

Rehman S, Ullah S, Effendi MH, Budiastuti B, Hamid IS, Rahman AU, Zaman A, Malik MIU, Rustam SA, Ullah S, Saleem Z. Avian influenza virus H5N1 and H9N2 subtypes in different birds and humans: Findings from an extensive evaluation. Open Vet. J.. 2026; 16(1): 1-14. doi:10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i1.1


Vancouver/ICMJE Style

Rehman S, Ullah S, Effendi MH, Budiastuti B, Hamid IS, Rahman AU, Zaman A, Malik MIU, Rustam SA, Ullah S, Saleem Z. Avian influenza virus H5N1 and H9N2 subtypes in different birds and humans: Findings from an extensive evaluation. Open Vet. J.. (2026), [cited January 31, 2026]; 16(1): 1-14. doi:10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i1.1


Harvard Style

Rehman, S., Ullah, . S., Effendi, . M. H., Budiastuti, . B., Hamid, . I. S., Rahman, . A. U., Zaman, . A., Malik, . M. I. U., Rustam, . S. A., Ullah, . S. & Saleem, . Z. (2026) Avian influenza virus H5N1 and H9N2 subtypes in different birds and humans: Findings from an extensive evaluation. Open Vet. J., 16 (1), 1-14. doi:10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i1.1


Turabian Style

Rehman, Saifur, Shakeeb Ullah, Mustofa Helmi Effendi, Budiastuti Budiastuti, Iwan Sahrial Hamid, Atta Ur Rahman, Ali Zaman, Muhammad Inam Ullah Malik, Saqib Ali Rustam, Sana Ullah, and Zulqarnain Saleem. 2026. Avian influenza virus H5N1 and H9N2 subtypes in different birds and humans: Findings from an extensive evaluation. Open Veterinary Journal, 16 (1), 1-14. doi:10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i1.1


Chicago Style

Rehman, Saifur, Shakeeb Ullah, Mustofa Helmi Effendi, Budiastuti Budiastuti, Iwan Sahrial Hamid, Atta Ur Rahman, Ali Zaman, Muhammad Inam Ullah Malik, Saqib Ali Rustam, Sana Ullah, and Zulqarnain Saleem. "Avian influenza virus H5N1 and H9N2 subtypes in different birds and humans: Findings from an extensive evaluation." Open Veterinary Journal 16 (2026), 1-14. doi:10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i1.1


MLA (The Modern Language Association) Style

Rehman, Saifur, Shakeeb Ullah, Mustofa Helmi Effendi, Budiastuti Budiastuti, Iwan Sahrial Hamid, Atta Ur Rahman, Ali Zaman, Muhammad Inam Ullah Malik, Saqib Ali Rustam, Sana Ullah, and Zulqarnain Saleem. "Avian influenza virus H5N1 and H9N2 subtypes in different birds and humans: Findings from an extensive evaluation." Open Veterinary Journal 16.1 (2026), 1-14. Print. doi:10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i1.1


APA (American Psychological Association) Style

Rehman, S., Ullah, . S., Effendi, . M. H., Budiastuti, . B., Hamid, . I. S., Rahman, . A. U., Zaman, . A., Malik, . M. I. U., Rustam, . S. A., Ullah, . S. & Saleem, . Z. (2026) Avian influenza virus H5N1 and H9N2 subtypes in different birds and humans: Findings from an extensive evaluation. Open Veterinary Journal, 16 (1), 1-14. doi:10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i1.1


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