Transboundary expansion of the foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype SAT1 and its implications for Indonesia’s biosecurity and disease prevention strategies

Harimurti Nuradji; Aswin Rafif Khairullah; Ni Luh Putu Indi Dharmayanti; Rahmat Setya Adji; Agus Wiyono; Susan Maphilindawati Noor; Fitrine Ekawasti; Diana Nurjanah; Muharam Saepulloh; Indrawati Sendow; Muhammad Khaliim Jati Kusala; Ima Fauziah; Syahputra Wibowo; Ririn Setyowati; Neny Santy Jelita Lumbantoruan; Eka Oktarianti; Rara Ayu Andinie; Arundhina Girishanta

doi:10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i8.6

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Open Vet. J.. 2026; 16(8): 5096-5113

doi: 10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i8.6

Transboundary expansion of the foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype SAT1 and its implications for Indonesia’s biosecurity and disease prevention strategies

Harimurti Nuradji, Aswin Rafif Khairullah, Ni Luh Putu Indi Dharmayanti, Rahmat Setya Adji, Agus Wiyono, Susan Maphilindawati Noor, Fitrine Ekawasti, Diana Nurjanah, Muharam Saepulloh, Indrawati Sendow, Muhammad Khaliim Jati Kusala, Ima Fauziah, Syahputra Wibowo, Ririn Setyowati, Neny Santy Jelita Lumbantoruan, Eka Oktarianti, Rara Ayu Andinie, Arundhina Girishanta.

Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral disease that affects cloven-hoofed animals and causes major economic losses in the livestock sector. Southern African Territories 1 (SAT1) is an important FMD serotype that was previously restricted to Sub-Saharan Africa but has recently shown evidence of wider geographic spread. Molecular surveillance and phylogenetic studies indicate that SAT serotypes may spread through international livestock trade and animal movement beyond endemic regions. Among SAT serotypes, SAT1 is of particular concern because of its high antigenic diversity, extensive genetic variability, and limited cross-protection with existing vaccines. These factors raise concerns regarding their potential introduction into disease-free regions, such as Indonesia. This review analyzes the virological and epidemiological characteristics of FMDV SAT1 and evaluates its possible introduction routes into Indonesia. The major pathways include the movement of animals and animal products, human mobility, global trade, and environmental transmission. The vulnerability of Indonesia was assessed based on livestock production systems, previous FMD outbreaks, immunity gaps, and the capacity of biosecurity and surveillance systems. The findings suggest that viral characteristics, increasing international trade, and uneven implementation of biosecurity and vaccination programs influence the risk of SAT1 introduction. Although precise quantitative estimation remains difficult due to limited surveillance data, transboundary animal movement and global trade increase the likelihood of SAT1 introduction into Southeast Asia. Strengthening farm-level biosecurity, improving genomic surveillance, optimizing vaccination strategies, and establishing vaccine banks containing antigenically matched SAT1 strains are essential for improving preparedness and emergency response capacity.

Key words: Biosecurity; Foot-and-mouth disease; Indonesia; SAT1; Vaccination.

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How to Cite this Article

Pubmed Style

Nuradji H, Khairullah AR, Dharmayanti NLPI, Adji RS, Wiyono A, Noor SM, Ekawasti F, Nurjanah D, Saepulloh M, Sendow I, Kusala MKJ, Fauziah I, Wibowo S, Setyowati R, Lumbantoruan NSJ, Oktarianti E, Andinie RA, Girishanta A. Transboundary expansion of the foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype SAT1 and its implications for Indonesia’s biosecurity and disease prevention strategies. Open Vet. J.. 2026; 16(8): 5096-5113. doi:10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i8.6

Web Style

Nuradji H, Khairullah AR, Dharmayanti NLPI, Adji RS, Wiyono A, Noor SM, Ekawasti F, Nurjanah D, Saepulloh M, Sendow I, Kusala MKJ, Fauziah I, Wibowo S, Setyowati R, Lumbantoruan NSJ, Oktarianti E, Andinie RA, Girishanta A. Transboundary expansion of the foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype SAT1 and its implications for Indonesia’s biosecurity and disease prevention strategies. https://www.openveterinaryjournal.com/?mno=319220 [Access: August 08, 2026]. doi:10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i8.6

AMA (American Medical Association) Style

Nuradji H, Khairullah AR, Dharmayanti NLPI, Adji RS, Wiyono A, Noor SM, Ekawasti F, Nurjanah D, Saepulloh M, Sendow I, Kusala MKJ, Fauziah I, Wibowo S, Setyowati R, Lumbantoruan NSJ, Oktarianti E, Andinie RA, Girishanta A. Transboundary expansion of the foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype SAT1 and its implications for Indonesia’s biosecurity and disease prevention strategies. Open Vet. J.. 2026; 16(8): 5096-5113. doi:10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i8.6

Vancouver/ICMJE Style

Nuradji H, Khairullah AR, Dharmayanti NLPI, Adji RS, Wiyono A, Noor SM, Ekawasti F, Nurjanah D, Saepulloh M, Sendow I, Kusala MKJ, Fauziah I, Wibowo S, Setyowati R, Lumbantoruan NSJ, Oktarianti E, Andinie RA, Girishanta A. Transboundary expansion of the foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype SAT1 and its implications for Indonesia’s biosecurity and disease prevention strategies. Open Vet. J.. (2026), [cited August 08, 2026]; 16(8): 5096-5113. doi:10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i8.6

Harvard Style

Nuradji, H., Khairullah, . A. R., Dharmayanti, . N. L. P. I., Adji, . R. S., Wiyono, . A., Noor, . S. M., Ekawasti, . F., Nurjanah, . D., Saepulloh, . M., Sendow, . I., Kusala, . M. K. J., Fauziah, . I., Wibowo, . S., Setyowati, . R., Lumbantoruan, . N. S. J., Oktarianti, . E., Andinie, . R. A. & Girishanta, . A. (2026) Transboundary expansion of the foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype SAT1 and its implications for Indonesia’s biosecurity and disease prevention strategies. Open Vet. J., 16 (8), 5096-5113. doi:10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i8.6

Turabian Style

Nuradji, Harimurti, Aswin Rafif Khairullah, Ni Luh Putu Indi Dharmayanti, Rahmat Setya Adji, Agus Wiyono, Susan Maphilindawati Noor, Fitrine Ekawasti, Diana Nurjanah, Muharam Saepulloh, Indrawati Sendow, Muhammad Khaliim Jati Kusala, Ima Fauziah, Syahputra Wibowo, Ririn Setyowati, Neny Santy Jelita Lumbantoruan, Eka Oktarianti, Rara Ayu Andinie, and Arundhina Girishanta. 2026. Transboundary expansion of the foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype SAT1 and its implications for Indonesia’s biosecurity and disease prevention strategies. Open Veterinary Journal, 16 (8), 5096-5113. doi:10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i8.6

Chicago Style

Nuradji, Harimurti, Aswin Rafif Khairullah, Ni Luh Putu Indi Dharmayanti, Rahmat Setya Adji, Agus Wiyono, Susan Maphilindawati Noor, Fitrine Ekawasti, Diana Nurjanah, Muharam Saepulloh, Indrawati Sendow, Muhammad Khaliim Jati Kusala, Ima Fauziah, Syahputra Wibowo, Ririn Setyowati, Neny Santy Jelita Lumbantoruan, Eka Oktarianti, Rara Ayu Andinie, and Arundhina Girishanta. "Transboundary expansion of the foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype SAT1 and its implications for Indonesia’s biosecurity and disease prevention strategies." Open Veterinary Journal 16 (2026), 5096-5113. doi:10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i8.6

MLA (The Modern Language Association) Style

Nuradji, Harimurti, Aswin Rafif Khairullah, Ni Luh Putu Indi Dharmayanti, Rahmat Setya Adji, Agus Wiyono, Susan Maphilindawati Noor, Fitrine Ekawasti, Diana Nurjanah, Muharam Saepulloh, Indrawati Sendow, Muhammad Khaliim Jati Kusala, Ima Fauziah, Syahputra Wibowo, Ririn Setyowati, Neny Santy Jelita Lumbantoruan, Eka Oktarianti, Rara Ayu Andinie, and Arundhina Girishanta. "Transboundary expansion of the foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype SAT1 and its implications for Indonesia’s biosecurity and disease prevention strategies." Open Veterinary Journal 16.8 (2026), 5096-5113. Print. doi:10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i8.6

APA (American Psychological Association) Style

Nuradji, H., Khairullah, . A. R., Dharmayanti, . N. L. P. I., Adji, . R. S., Wiyono, . A., Noor, . S. M., Ekawasti, . F., Nurjanah, . D., Saepulloh, . M., Sendow, . I., Kusala, . M. K. J., Fauziah, . I., Wibowo, . S., Setyowati, . R., Lumbantoruan, . N. S. J., Oktarianti, . E., Andinie, . R. A. & Girishanta, . A. (2026) Transboundary expansion of the foot-and-mouth disease virus serotype SAT1 and its implications for Indonesia’s biosecurity and disease prevention strategies. Open Veterinary Journal, 16 (8), 5096-5113. doi:10.5455/OVJ.2026.v16.i8.6

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